● The sights, the scents, the perfumes, the rich colors of the myriad of flowers around us not only `color{Violet}"attract humans"` and animals but also act as an `color{Violet}"aid to sexual reproduction"`.

● All flowering plants show `color{Violet}"sexual reproduction"`.

`star` Importance to Humans:
● Human beings have had an `color{Violet}"intimate relationship"` with flowers since time immemorial.

● Flowers are objects of `color{Violet}"aesthetic"`, `color{Violet}"ornamental"`, `color{Violet}"social"`, `color{Violet}"religious"` and `color{Violet}"cultural"` value.



● They have always been used as `color{Violet}"symbols"` for conveying important `color{Violet}"human feelings"` such as love, affection, happiness, grief, mourning, etc.



● To a biologist, flowers are `color{Violet}"morphological and embryological marvels"` and the sites of sexual reproduction.

● Much `color{Violet}"before the actual flower"` is seen on a plant, the `color{Violet}"decision"` that the plant is going to flower takes place.

● Several `color{Violet}"hormonal and structural changes"` are initiated which lead to the `color{Violet}"differentiation"` and further development of the `color{Violet}"floral primordium"`.

● `color{Violet}"Inflorescences"` are formed which bear the `color{Violet}"floral buds"` and then the flowers.

● In the flower the `color{Violet}"male"` and `color{Violet}"female"` reproductive structures, the `color{Violet}"androecium"` and the `color{Violet}"gynoecium"` differentiate and develop.

● The `color{Violet}"Androecium"` consists of a whorl of `color{Violet}"stamens"` representing the `color{Violet}"male reproductive organ"`.

● The `color{Violet}"Gynoecium"` consists of a whorl of `color{Violet}"carpel/ pistil"` representing the `color{Violet}"female reproductive organ"`.

● A typical `color{Violet}"stamen"` has `color{Violet}"two parts"`– the long and slender stalk called the `color{Violet}"filament"`, and the terminal generally `color{Violet}"bilobed structure"` called the `color{Violet}"anther"`.

● The `color{Violet}"proximal end"` of the filament is attached to the `color{Violet}"thalamus or the petal"` of the flower.

● The `color{Violet}"number and length"` of stamens are `color{Violet}"variable"` in flowers of different species.

● A typical angiosperm anther is `color{Violet}"bilobed"` with each lobe having `color{Violet}"two theca"`, i.e., they are `color{Violet}"dithecous"`.

● Often a `color{Violet}"longitudinal groove"` runs lengthwise separating the theca.

● The `color{Violet}"bilobed nature"` of an anther is very distinct in the `color{Violet}"transverse section"` of the anther.

● The anther is a `color{Violet}"four-sided (tetragonal)"` structure consisting of `color{Violet}"four microsporangia
"` located at the corners, two in each lobe.

● The microsporangia develop further and become `color{Violet}"pollen sacs"`.

● They `color{Violet}"extend longitudinally"` all through the length of an anther and are packed with `color{Violet}"pollen grains"`.

● In a transverse section, a typical `color{Violet}"microsporangium"` appears `color{Violet}"near circular"` in outline.

● It is generally surrounded by `color{Violet}"four wall layers"` – the `color{Violet}"epidermis"`, `color{Violet}"endothecium"`, `color{Violet}"middle layers"` and the `color{Violet}"tapetum"`.

● The `color{Violet}"outer three"` wall layers perform the `color{Violet}"function of protection"` and help in `color{Violet}"dehiscence of anther"` to release the pollen.

● The `color{Violet}"innermost"` wall layer is the `color{Violet}"tapetum"`.

● It `color{Violet}"nourishes"` the developing pollen grains.

● Cells of the tapetum possess `color{Violet}"dense cytoplasm"` and generally have `color{Violet}"more than one nucleus"`.

● When the `color{Violet}"anther is young"`, a group of `color{Violet}"compactly"` arranged `color{Violet}"homogenous"` cells called the `color{Violet}"sporogenous tissue"` occupies the `color{Violet}"centre"` of each microsporangium.