Meiosis : (Gk. meioum = to reduce, osis = state)
# Definition : It is a special type of division in which the chromosomes duplicate only once, but cell divides twice. So one parental cell produces 4 daughter cells; each having half the chromosome number and DNA amount than normal parental cell. So meiosis is also called reductional division.
# Discovery : It was first demonstrated by Van Benden (1883) but was described by Winiwarter (1900). Term “meiosis” was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
# Occurrence : It is found in special types and at specific period. It is reported in diploid germ cells of sex organs (e.g. primary spermatocytes of testes to form male gametes called spermotozoa and primary oocytes to form female gametes called ova in animals) and in pollen mother cells (microsporocytes) of anther and megasporocyte of ovule of ovary of flowers in plant to form the haploid spores. The study of meiosis in plants can be done in young flower buds.
# Process of meiosis : Meiosis is completed in two steps, meiosis I and meiosis II
Meiosis I : In which the actual chromosome number is reduced to half. Therefore, meiosis I is also known as reductional division or heterotypic division. It results in the formation of two haploid cells from one diploid cell. It is divided into two parts, karyokinesis I and
cytokinesis I.
Karyokinesis I : It involves division of nucleus. It is divided into four phases i.e. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
# Prophase I : It is of longest phase of karyokinesis of meiosis. It is again divisible into five subphases i.e. leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.
- (i) Leptotene/Leptonema
(a) Chromosomes are long thread like with chromomeres on it.
(b) Volume of nucleus increases.
(c) Chromatin network has half chromosomes from male and half from female parent.
(d) Chromosome with similar structure are known as homologous chromosomes.
(e) Leptonemal chromosomes have a definite polarization and forms loops whose ends are attached to the nuclear envelope at points near the centrioles, contained within an aster. Such peculiar arrangement is termed as bouquet stage (in animals) and syndet knot (in plants).
(f) E.M. (electron microscope) reveals that chromosomes are composed of paired chromatids, a dense proteinaceous filament or axial core lies within the groove between the sister chromatids of each chromosome.
(g) Lampbrush chromosome found in oocyte of amphibians is seen in leptotene.
- (ii) Zygotene/Zygonema
(a) Pairing or “synapsis” of homologous chromosomes takes place in this stage.
(b) Synapsis may be of following types.
Procentric : Starting at the centromere.
Proterminal : Starting at the end.
Localised random : Starting at various points.
(c) Paired chromosomes are called bivalents, which by furthur molecular packing and spiralization becomes shorter and thicker.
(d) Pairing of homologous chromosomes in a zipper-fashion. Number of bivalents (paired homologous chromosomes) is half to total number of chromosomes in a diploid cell. Each bivalent is formed of one paternal and one maternal chromosome (i.e. one chromosome derived from each parent).
(e) Under EM, a filamentous ladder like nucleoproteinous complex, called synaptinemal. Complex between the homologous chromosomes which is discovered by “Moses” (1953).
- (iii) Pachytene/Pachynema
(a) In the tetrad, two similar chromatids of the same chromosome are called sister chromatids and those of two homologous chromosomes are termed non-sister chromatids.
(b) Crossing over i.e. exchange of segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome occurs at this stage.
It takes place by breakage and reunion of chromatis segments. Breakage called nicking, is assisted by an enzyme endonuclease and reunion termed annealing is added by an enzyme ligase. Breakage and reunion hypothesis proposed by Darlington (1937).
(c) Chromatids of pachytene chromosome are attached with centromere.
(d) A tetrad consists of two sets of homologous chromosomes each with two chromatids. Each tetrad has four kinetochore (two sister and two homologous).
(e) A number of electron dense bodies about 100 nm in diameter are seen at irregular intervals within the centre of the synaptonemal complex, known as recombination nodules.
(f) DNA polymerase is responsible for the repair synthesis.
(iv) Diplotene/Diplonema
(a) At this stage the paired chromosomes begin to separate (desynapsis).
(b) Cross is formed at the place of crossing over between non-sister chromatids.
(c) Homologous chromosomes move apart they remain attached to one another at specific points called chiasmata.
(d) At least one chiasma is formed in each bivalent.
(e) Chromosomes are attached only at the place of chiasmata.
(f) Chromatin bridges are formed in place of synaptonemal complex on chiasmata.
(g) This stage remains as such for long time.
# Diakinesis
(a) Chiasmata moves towards the ends of chromosomes. This is called terminalization.
(b) Chromatids remain attached at the place of chiasma only.
(c) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus degenerates.
(d) Chromosome recondense and tetrad moves to the metaphase plate.
(e) Formation of spindle.
(f) Bivalents are irregularly and freely scattered in the nucleocytoplasmic matrix.
When the diakinesis of prophase-I is completed than cell enters into the metaphase-I.
# Metaphase I : It involves;
(i) Chromosome come on the equator.
(ii) Due to repulsive force the chromosome segment get exchanged at the chiasmata.
(iii) Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial or metaphase plates. Each equatorial plate has one genome.
(iv) Centromeres of homologous chromosomes lie equisdistant from equator and are directed towards the poles while arms generally lie horizontally on the equator.
(v) Each homologous chromosome has two kinetochores and both the kinetochores of a chromosome are joined to the chromosomal or tractile fibre of same side.
# Anaphase-I
(i) It involves separartion of homologous chromosomes which start moving opposite poles so each tetrad is divided into two daughter dyads. So anaphase-I involves the reduction of chromosome number, this is called disjunction.
(ii) The shape of separating chromosomes may be rod or J or V-shape depending upon the position of centromere.
(iii) Segregation of mendalian factors or independent asortment of chromosomes take place. In which the paternal and maternal chromosomes of each homologous pair segregate during anaphase-I which introduces genetic variability.
# Telophase-I
(i) Two daughter nuclei are formed but the chromosome number is half than the chromosome number of mother cell.
(ii) Nuclear membrane reappears.
(iii) After telophase I cytokinesis may or may not occur.
(iv) At the end of Meiosis I either two daughter cells will be formed or a cell may have two daughter nuclei.
(v) Meiosis I is also termed as reduction division.
(vi) After meiosis I, the cells in animals are reformed as secondary spermatocytes or secondary oocytes; with haploid number of chromosomes but diploid amount of DNA.
(vi) Chromosomes undergo decondensation by hydration and despiralization and change into long and thread like chromation fibres.
Interphase : Generally there is no interphase between meiosis-I and meiosis-II. A brief interphase called interkinesis, or intermeiotic interphase. There is no replication chromosomes, during this interphase.
#Cytokinesis-I : It may or may not be present. When present, it occurs by cell-furrow formation in animal cells and cell plate formation in plant cells.
# Significance of meiosis-I :
(i) It separates the homologous chromosomes to reduce the chromosome number to the haploid state, a necessity for sexual reproduction.
(ii) It introduces variation by forming new gene combinations through crossing over and randon assortment of paternal and maternal chromosomes.
(iii) It may at times cause chromosomal mutation by abnormal disjunction.
(iv) It induces the cells to produce gametes for sexual reproduction or spores for asexual reproduction.
Meiosis-II : It is also called equational or homotypical division because the number of chromosomes remains same as after meiosis-I. It is of shorter duration than even typical mitotic division. It is also divisible into two parts, Karyokinesis-II and Cytokinesis-II.
Karyokinesis-II : It involves the separation of two chromatids of each chromosome and their movement to separate cells. It is divided in four phases i.e., Prophase-II, Metaphase-II. Anaphase-II and Telophase-II.
Almost all the changes of Karyokinesis-II resembles to mitosis which involves.
(i) It starts just after end of telophase I.
(ii) Each daughter cell (nucleus) undergoes mitotic division.
(iii) It is exactly similar to mitosis.
(iv) At the end of process, cytokinesis takes place.
(v) Four daughter cells are formed after completion.
(vi) The sister kinetochores of one chromosome are separated.
(vii) The four daughter cells receive one chromatid each of the tetravalent.
(viii) Centromere divide at anaphase II.
(ix) Spindle fibres contract at prophase II.
Cytokinesis-II : It is always present and occurs by cell furrow formation in animal cell and cell plate formation in plant cell.
So by meiosis, a diploid parental cell divides twice forming four haploid gametes or sex cells, each having half the DNA amount than that of the parental cell and one-fourth of DNA present in the cell at the time of beginning of meiosis.
# Significance of meiosis
(i) Constancy of chromosome number in successive generation is brought by process.
(ii) Chromosome number becomes half during meiosis.
(iii) It helps in introducing variations and mutation.
(iv) It brings about gamete formation.
(v) It maintains the amount of genetic informative material.
(vi) Sexual reproduction includes one meiosis and fusion.
(vii) The four daughter cells will have different types of chromatids.
# Why the necessity of meiosis-II : The basic aim of meiosis is to reduce the number of chromosomes to half. The chromosomes that separate in the anaphase of meiosis-I are still double. Each consist of two chromatids and has 2n amount of DNA. Thus reduction of DNA content does not occur in meiosis-I. Truely haploid nuclei in terms of DNA contents as well as chromosome number are formed in meiosis-II. When the chromatids of each chromosome are separated into different nuclei. Thus meiosis-II is necessary.
Meiosis : (Gk. meioum = to reduce, osis = state)
# Definition : It is a special type of division in which the chromosomes duplicate only once, but cell divides twice. So one parental cell produces 4 daughter cells; each having half the chromosome number and DNA amount than normal parental cell. So meiosis is also called reductional division.
# Discovery : It was first demonstrated by Van Benden (1883) but was described by Winiwarter (1900). Term “meiosis” was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
# Occurrence : It is found in special types and at specific period. It is reported in diploid germ cells of sex organs (e.g. primary spermatocytes of testes to form male gametes called spermotozoa and primary oocytes to form female gametes called ova in animals) and in pollen mother cells (microsporocytes) of anther and megasporocyte of ovule of ovary of flowers in plant to form the haploid spores. The study of meiosis in plants can be done in young flower buds.
# Process of meiosis : Meiosis is completed in two steps, meiosis I and meiosis II
Meiosis I : In which the actual chromosome number is reduced to half. Therefore, meiosis I is also known as reductional division or heterotypic division. It results in the formation of two haploid cells from one diploid cell. It is divided into two parts, karyokinesis I and
cytokinesis I.
Karyokinesis I : It involves division of nucleus. It is divided into four phases i.e. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
# Prophase I : It is of longest phase of karyokinesis of meiosis. It is again divisible into five subphases i.e. leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.
- (i) Leptotene/Leptonema
(a) Chromosomes are long thread like with chromomeres on it.
(b) Volume of nucleus increases.
(c) Chromatin network has half chromosomes from male and half from female parent.
(d) Chromosome with similar structure are known as homologous chromosomes.
(e) Leptonemal chromosomes have a definite polarization and forms loops whose ends are attached to the nuclear envelope at points near the centrioles, contained within an aster. Such peculiar arrangement is termed as bouquet stage (in animals) and syndet knot (in plants).
(f) E.M. (electron microscope) reveals that chromosomes are composed of paired chromatids, a dense proteinaceous filament or axial core lies within the groove between the sister chromatids of each chromosome.
(g) Lampbrush chromosome found in oocyte of amphibians is seen in leptotene.
- (ii) Zygotene/Zygonema
(a) Pairing or “synapsis” of homologous chromosomes takes place in this stage.
(b) Synapsis may be of following types.
Procentric : Starting at the centromere.
Proterminal : Starting at the end.
Localised random : Starting at various points.
(c) Paired chromosomes are called bivalents, which by furthur molecular packing and spiralization becomes shorter and thicker.
(d) Pairing of homologous chromosomes in a zipper-fashion. Number of bivalents (paired homologous chromosomes) is half to total number of chromosomes in a diploid cell. Each bivalent is formed of one paternal and one maternal chromosome (i.e. one chromosome derived from each parent).
(e) Under EM, a filamentous ladder like nucleoproteinous complex, called synaptinemal. Complex between the homologous chromosomes which is discovered by “Moses” (1953).
- (iii) Pachytene/Pachynema
(a) In the tetrad, two similar chromatids of the same chromosome are called sister chromatids and those of two homologous chromosomes are termed non-sister chromatids.
(b) Crossing over i.e. exchange of segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome occurs at this stage.
It takes place by breakage and reunion of chromatis segments. Breakage called nicking, is assisted by an enzyme endonuclease and reunion termed annealing is added by an enzyme ligase. Breakage and reunion hypothesis proposed by Darlington (1937).
(c) Chromatids of pachytene chromosome are attached with centromere.
(d) A tetrad consists of two sets of homologous chromosomes each with two chromatids. Each tetrad has four kinetochore (two sister and two homologous).
(e) A number of electron dense bodies about 100 nm in diameter are seen at irregular intervals within the centre of the synaptonemal complex, known as recombination nodules.
(f) DNA polymerase is responsible for the repair synthesis.
(iv) Diplotene/Diplonema
(a) At this stage the paired chromosomes begin to separate (desynapsis).
(b) Cross is formed at the place of crossing over between non-sister chromatids.
(c) Homologous chromosomes move apart they remain attached to one another at specific points called chiasmata.
(d) At least one chiasma is formed in each bivalent.
(e) Chromosomes are attached only at the place of chiasmata.
(f) Chromatin bridges are formed in place of synaptonemal complex on chiasmata.
(g) This stage remains as such for long time.
# Diakinesis
(a) Chiasmata moves towards the ends of chromosomes. This is called terminalization.
(b) Chromatids remain attached at the place of chiasma only.
(c) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus degenerates.
(d) Chromosome recondense and tetrad moves to the metaphase plate.
(e) Formation of spindle.
(f) Bivalents are irregularly and freely scattered in the nucleocytoplasmic matrix.
When the diakinesis of prophase-I is completed than cell enters into the metaphase-I.
# Metaphase I : It involves;
(i) Chromosome come on the equator.
(ii) Due to repulsive force the chromosome segment get exchanged at the chiasmata.
(iii) Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial or metaphase plates. Each equatorial plate has one genome.
(iv) Centromeres of homologous chromosomes lie equisdistant from equator and are directed towards the poles while arms generally lie horizontally on the equator.
(v) Each homologous chromosome has two kinetochores and both the kinetochores of a chromosome are joined to the chromosomal or tractile fibre of same side.
# Anaphase-I
(i) It involves separartion of homologous chromosomes which start moving opposite poles so each tetrad is divided into two daughter dyads. So anaphase-I involves the reduction of chromosome number, this is called disjunction.
(ii) The shape of separating chromosomes may be rod or J or V-shape depending upon the position of centromere.
(iii) Segregation of mendalian factors or independent asortment of chromosomes take place. In which the paternal and maternal chromosomes of each homologous pair segregate during anaphase-I which introduces genetic variability.
# Telophase-I
(i) Two daughter nuclei are formed but the chromosome number is half than the chromosome number of mother cell.
(ii) Nuclear membrane reappears.
(iii) After telophase I cytokinesis may or may not occur.
(iv) At the end of Meiosis I either two daughter cells will be formed or a cell may have two daughter nuclei.
(v) Meiosis I is also termed as reduction division.
(vi) After meiosis I, the cells in animals are reformed as secondary spermatocytes or secondary oocytes; with haploid number of chromosomes but diploid amount of DNA.
(vi) Chromosomes undergo decondensation by hydration and despiralization and change into long and thread like chromation fibres.
Interphase : Generally there is no interphase between meiosis-I and meiosis-II. A brief interphase called interkinesis, or intermeiotic interphase. There is no replication chromosomes, during this interphase.
#Cytokinesis-I : It may or may not be present. When present, it occurs by cell-furrow formation in animal cells and cell plate formation in plant cells.
# Significance of meiosis-I :
(i) It separates the homologous chromosomes to reduce the chromosome number to the haploid state, a necessity for sexual reproduction.
(ii) It introduces variation by forming new gene combinations through crossing over and randon assortment of paternal and maternal chromosomes.
(iii) It may at times cause chromosomal mutation by abnormal disjunction.
(iv) It induces the cells to produce gametes for sexual reproduction or spores for asexual reproduction.
Meiosis-II : It is also called equational or homotypical division because the number of chromosomes remains same as after meiosis-I. It is of shorter duration than even typical mitotic division. It is also divisible into two parts, Karyokinesis-II and Cytokinesis-II.
Karyokinesis-II : It involves the separation of two chromatids of each chromosome and their movement to separate cells. It is divided in four phases i.e., Prophase-II, Metaphase-II. Anaphase-II and Telophase-II.
Almost all the changes of Karyokinesis-II resembles to mitosis which involves.
(i) It starts just after end of telophase I.
(ii) Each daughter cell (nucleus) undergoes mitotic division.
(iii) It is exactly similar to mitosis.
(iv) At the end of process, cytokinesis takes place.
(v) Four daughter cells are formed after completion.
(vi) The sister kinetochores of one chromosome are separated.
(vii) The four daughter cells receive one chromatid each of the tetravalent.
(viii) Centromere divide at anaphase II.
(ix) Spindle fibres contract at prophase II.
Cytokinesis-II : It is always present and occurs by cell furrow formation in animal cell and cell plate formation in plant cell.
So by meiosis, a diploid parental cell divides twice forming four haploid gametes or sex cells, each having half the DNA amount than that of the parental cell and one-fourth of DNA present in the cell at the time of beginning of meiosis.
# Significance of meiosis
(i) Constancy of chromosome number in successive generation is brought by process.
(ii) Chromosome number becomes half during meiosis.
(iii) It helps in introducing variations and mutation.
(iv) It brings about gamete formation.
(v) It maintains the amount of genetic informative material.
(vi) Sexual reproduction includes one meiosis and fusion.
(vii) The four daughter cells will have different types of chromatids.
# Why the necessity of meiosis-II : The basic aim of meiosis is to reduce the number of chromosomes to half. The chromosomes that separate in the anaphase of meiosis-I are still double. Each consist of two chromatids and has 2n amount of DNA. Thus reduction of DNA content does not occur in meiosis-I. Truely haploid nuclei in terms of DNA contents as well as chromosome number are formed in meiosis-II. When the chromatids of each chromosome are separated into different nuclei. Thus meiosis-II is necessary.